Introduction to Linguistic Group 1

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PAPER GROUP 1

INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTIC

This Paper in order to complete the assignment of Introduction to Linguistic

Lecturer: Sari Famularsih, S.Pd.I., M.A

Written by :

Imam Mustofa           (113-13-030)

M Nur Abdillah         (113-13-114)

Naila Rajiha               (113-13-043)

Nur Azizah                (113-13-037)

ENGLISH  DEPARTEMENT

Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) SALATIGA

2015

CHAPTER I

DEFINITION OF LINGUISTICS AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE

1.         The Definition of Linguistics.

Linguistics is study of language.

Linguistics is concerned with human language as a universal and recognizable part of human behavior and of the human abilities. Raja T. Nasr (1984).

2.         The history of linguistics

According Ferdinand de Saussure history linguistics divided into 4 stages. These stages are:

1.    Traditional grammar. Essentially, the logic-based analysis of languages, primarily for prescriptive purposes. Saussure includes under this rubric every European linguistic tradition from the Greeks to the end of 18th century, when French grammar was ascendant.

2.    Classical philology. The close study of written texts of antiquity to understand literature and culture of the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome.

3.    Comparative philology. The discovery of historical relationships by comparison; genetic classification of languages; and by the mid-19th century, reconstruction.

4.    Linguistics proper. Begins essentially with the Neogrammarians and was the contemporary modern-day approach in Saussure's time. (There were still representatives of all three of the earlier traditions around, however.)       

3.         The Proper Scope of Linguistics

 The proper scope of linguistics includes:

1.      Genetic classification, historical description, and reconstruction for all languages.

2. Discovery of universal 'forces' shaping language; generalization beyond historical peculiarities
3. Definition of linguistics as a field, delimitation of its subject matter, relation to other fields

                                   

4.         The Object of Linguistics

            The object of linguistics includes :

a. Defining language

Definition is a basic activity of language, of particular importance to linguists because of its use of langua ge to describe itself. Beyond this inherent significance as a crucial element of language study, definitions also provide a rich potential source of the information needed for Natural Language Processing systems.

langue is the system or code (le code de la langue') which allows the realization of the individual messages.

 parole is the realm of the individual moments of language use, of particular 'utterances' or 'messages,' whether spoken or written.

 Language Is the language skills that exist in every human being that are innate.

b. Separating Langue (a Language) from Parole (Speech)

Saussure presents an analysis of how a Language relates to Speech in a communicative act. First he examines an "individual act" of Speech. This is an act of a complete transfer of communication between two interlocutors.

5.         The Branches of linguistics

General linguistic generally describes the concepts and categories of a particular language or among all language. It also provides analyzed theory of the language.

Descriptive linguistic describes or gives the data to confirm or refute the theory of particular language explained generally.

a.      PHONETICS

The study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics), how they are transmitted through the air (acoustic phonetics), and how they are perceived by the listener (auditory phonetics).

b.      PHONOLOGY

The study of the sound system of language; how the particular sounds used in each language form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.

c.       MORPHOLOGY

The study of the way in which words are constructed out of smaller units which have a meaning or grammatical function, for example the word friendly is constructed from friend and the adjective-forming –ly.

d.      LEXICOGRAPHY

The compiling of dictionaries. Lexicography could be seen as a branch of applied linguistics.

e.       SYNTAX

The study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.

f.       SEMANTICS

The study of meaning; how words and sentences are related to the real or imaginary objects they refer to and the situations they describe.

g.      PRAGMATICS

The study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used such as time, place, social relationship between speaker and hearer, and speaker’s assumptions about the hearer’s belief.

h.      SOCIOLINGUISTICS

The study of language in relation to social factors such as social class, educational level, age, sex and ethnic origin. Such areas as the study of language choice in bilingual or multilingual communities, language planning or language attitudes can also be included.

i.        DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews etc.

j.         STYLISTICS

The study of that variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer/speaker wishes to create on the reader/hearer. Stylistics tries to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language.

k.       LITERARY STYLISTICS

The analysis of literary texts applying linguistic methods and theories (phonetics, morphology, syntax, discourse analysis, pragmatics, etc.) with the aim of providing retrievable interpretations which allow comparisons of different texts, genres (fiction, drama and poetry) etc.

l.         PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

The study of the mental processes underlying the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, for example how memory limitations affect speech production and comprehension. The best developed branch of psycholinguistics is the study of language acquisition

m.     APPLIED LINGUISTICS

The application of the methods and results of linguistics to such areas as language teaching; national language policies; translation; language in politics, advertising, classrooms and courts (forensic linguistics).

n.       COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS

Computational linguists study natural languages, such as English and Japanese, rather than computer languages, such as Fortran, or Java. The field of computational linguistics has two aims: the technological aim to enable computers to be used as aids in analyzing and processing natural language and the psychological aim to understand, by analogy with computers, more about how people process natural languages. It also includes research on automatic translation, electronic production of artificial speech and the automatic recognition of human speech.

6.         Characteristic of Human Language

Ø  Language is a form of communication. (It allows for an exchange of information.)

Ø  Language is intentional. (Unlike when we yawn, we intend to communicate when we speak.)

Ø  Language uses meaningful symbols (e.g., words, signs) to communicate.

Ø  These symbols are arbitrary. (A horse could just as easily be called something else.)

Ø  Language is rule-governed. (We use rules of phonology, morphology, syntax, etc. in order to speak.)

Ø  Language has a syntax. (It is composed of parts which we combine according to rules.)

Ø  Language is creative. (We can talk about brand new ideas and create brand new sentences.)

Ø   Language has displacement. (It can transcend time and place: we can speak about things not present or about abstract ideas.)

Ø   Language is learned without special training.

Ø   Our knowledge of language is largely subconscious.

CHAPTER II

SOUNDS : PHONETICS AND PONOLOGY

1.         The Definition of Phonetic and Phonology

n Phonetics:

            The study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics), how they are transmitted through the air (acoustic phonetics), and how they are perceived by the listener (auditory phonetics).

n Phonology:

            The study of the sound system of language; how the particular sounds used in each language form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.

As phonetics and phonology both deal with sounds, and as English spelling and English pronunciation are two very different things, it is important that you keep in mind that we are not interested in letters here, but in sounds. The orthographic spelling of a word will be given in italics, e.g. please, and the phonetic transcription between square brackets [pli:z]. Thus the word please consists of three consonants, [p,l,z], and one vowel, [i:]. And sounds considered from the phonological point of view are put between slashes. We will use the symbols in figure (1).

2.         Lists of Symbol

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

The IPA is a system for representing phonetic sound with symbols.

The IPA help us to pronounce a word correctly.

New word : Lamb

Look in the dictionary :

                                    1. you learn that it is a baby sheep

                                    2. look the IPA transcription : /læm/

If you understand IPA symbols, you will know the correct pronouncation.

/læm/	Simbol	Sound (in Read)
	L	Leg
	Æ	Cat
	M	Mother

1.      Consonants (Voiceless and Voiced Pairs)

These sounds are in pairs

The sounds for each pair (example “p” and “b”) are produced in the same place in the mouth with tongue in the same potition.

The sound of the voiceless consonant (“p”) comes from the mouth only.

The sound of the voiced consonan (b”) comes from the voice (troat).

Voiceless			Voiced Pairs
IPA	Examples		IPA	Examples
p	Apple, stop	↔	b	Bad, beer
t	Tree, want	↔	d	Door, food
ʧ	Chair, teacher	↔	ʤ	Joke, lounge
k	Cat, walk	↔	g	Green, dog
f	Fish, if	↔	v	Vote, five
ɵ	Thing, both	↔	ð	They, mother
s	Stop, fast	↔	z	Zoo, noise
ʃ	She, fish	↔	ʒ	Pleasure, vision

               Other Consonants

IPA	Examples
m	Man, money
n	Never, ten
ŋ	Sing, drink
h	High, hot
l	Low, pull
r	Red,tree
w	Why, want
j	Yes, yellow

2.      Vowels

   Long Vowel(s)

IPA	Exmples
i:	Tree, green
u:	Shoe, food
a:	Arm, car
ɔ:	Door, four
ɜ:ʳ	Girl, prefer

NB : Usually, in England, that ʳ (symbol) of ɜ:ʳ , ʳ is not a sound. It means that we pronounce the final “r” sound only if the next word stars with a vowel.

Example : “Prefer” = / prɪ'fɜ:ʳ/

-          “I prefer apples.” (we pronounce the final “r” sound)

-          “I prefer pears.” (we not pronounce the final “r” sound)

Short Vowel(s)

IPA	Examples
ɪ	Sit, fish
ʊ	Pull, good
ʌ	Mug, duck
ɒ	Hot, stop
Ǝ	Amount, cinema
E	Red, dead
Æ	Cat, fat
ɚ	Mother
ɝ	Girl

Dipthongs

Dipthong is the sound of 2 vowels in 1 syllable

IPA	Examples
ɪǝʳ	Ear, bear
ʊǝʳ	Pure, tourist
aɪ	My, five
ɔɪ	Boy, choice
ǝʊ	Go, joke
eǝʳ	There, chair
aʊ	Now, lounge
eɪ	They, say
oʊ	Nose

NB : In America, Nose can be pronounced = /noʊse/

But in the other, can be pronounced = / nɒse/

In England, ʳ We pronounce the final “r” sound only if the next word star withn a vowel.

3.          The Speech Organs

All the organs shown on figure (2) contribute to the production of speech. All the sounds of English are made using air on its way out from the lungs. The lungs pull in and push out air, helped by the diaphragm. The air goes out via the trachea, where the first obstruction it meets is the larynx, which it has to pass through. Inside the larynx the air passes by the vocal folds, which, if they vibrate, make the sound voiced. Afterwards the air goes up through the pharynx, and escapes via either the oral or the nasal cavity.

Figure (3) : production of oral and nasal sounds. (Thomas 1976: 32)

Circle the parts that are modified in B to produce nasal sounds.

4.      Places of Articulation.

As we saw above [p,t,k] are all voiceless, so there must be another way to distinguish between them, otherwise we would not be able to tell try apart from pry or cry, or pick from tick or kick . Apart from the behaviour of the vocal folds, sounds can also be distinguished as to where in the oral cavity they are articulated (i.e. where in the mouth there is most obstruction when they are pronounced)

Figure (4): places of articulation.(Roach 1983:8)

-          Bilabial sounds are produced when the lips are brought together. Examples are [p], which is voiceless, as in pay or [b] and [m] which are voiced, as in bay, may.

-          Labiodental sounds are made when the lower lip is raised towards the upper front teeth. Examples are [f] safe (voiceless) and [v] save (voiced).

-          Dental sounds are produced by touching the upper front teeth with the tip of the tongue. Examples are [ɵ] oath (voiceless) and [ð] clothe (voiced).

-          Alveolar sounds are made by raising the tip of the tongue towards the ridge that is right behind the upper front teeth, called the alveolar ridge. Examples are [ t,s ] too,sue, both voiceless, and [d,z,n,l,r ] do, zoo, nook, look, rook, all voiced.

-          Palatoalveolar sounds are made by raising the blade of the tongue towards the part of the palate just behind the alveolar ridge. Examples [ʃ, ʧ] pressure, batch (voiceless) and [ʒ, ʤ] pleasure, badge (voiced).

-          Palatal sounds are very similar to palatoalveolar ones, they are just produced further back towards the velum. The only palatal sound in English is [ j] as in yes, yellow, beauty, new and it is voiced.

-          Velar sounds are made by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate, called the velum. Examples [k] back, voiceless, and [g, ŋ] both voiced bag, bang. [w] is a velar which is accompanied with lip rounding.

-          Glottal sounds are produced when the air passes through the glottis as it is narrowed: [h] as in high.

5.         Manners of Articulation.

We can now distinguish between English consonants from two points of view, that of voicing, and that of place. We can see that [b] and [t] are different in both respects, [b] is voiced and bilabial, and [t] is voiceless and alveolar. [p] differs from [b] only in being voiceless, as both are bilabial, and [p] differs from [t] only in being bilabial, as both are voiceless.

There are still pairs of sounds where we cannot yet describe the difference of one from the other, e.g. [b,m] bend, mend as both are voiced and bilabial, and [t,s] ton, son which both are voiceless and alveolar. As the examples show, we can however tell the words apart, and this is because the sounds are different in a way we have not yet discussed, and that is with respect to their manner of articulation.

The manner of articulation has to do with the kind of obstruction the air meets on its way out, after it has passed the vocal folds. It may meet a complete closure (plosives), an almost complete closure (fricatives), or a smaller degree of closure (approximants), or the air might escape in more exceptional ways, around the sides of the tongue (laterals), or through the nasal cavity (nasals).

Plosives are sounds in which there is a complete closure in the mouth, so that the air is blocked for a fraction of a second and then released with a small burst of sound, called a plosion (it sounds like a very small explosion). Plosives may be bilabial [p,b] park, bark, alveolar [t,d] tar, dark or velar [k,g] car, guard. There is a fourth kind of plosive, the glottal stop. The word football can be pronounced without interruption in the middle as in [fʊtb:l.

Fricatives have a closure which is not quite complete. This means that the air is not blocked at any point, and therefore there is no plosion. On the other hand the obstruction is big enough for the air to make a noise when it passes through it, because of the friction. This effect is similar to the wind whistling around the corner of a house. Fricatives may be labiodental [f,v] wife, wives, dental [ө,ð] breath, breathe, alveolar [s,z] sink, zinc, palato alveolar [ʃ,ӡ] nation, evasion, or glottal [h] help. [h] is a glottal fricative. As it has no closure anywhere else, and as all air passes between the vocal folds, this means that [h] is like aspiration unaccompanied by any obstruction.

Affricates are a combination of a plosive and a fricative (sometimes they are called "affricated plosives"). They begin like a plosive, with a complete closure, but instead of a plosion, they have a very slow release, moving backwards to a place where a friction can be heard (palatoalveolar). The two English affricates are both palatoalveolar, [tʃ] which is voiceless, chin, rich, and [dӡ] which is voiced, gin, ridge. The way an affricate resembles a plosive followed by a fricative is mirrored in the symbols. Both consist of a plosive symbol followed by a fricative one: [ t+ʃ], [d+ӡ].

Nasals resemble plosives, except that there is a complete closure in the mouth, but as the velum is lowered the air can escape through the nasal cavity. Though most sounds are produced with the velum raised, the normal position for the velum is lowered, as this is the position for breathing (your velum is probably lowered right now when you are reading this). The three English nasals are all voiced, and [m] is bilabial, ram, [n] is alveolar, ran, and [ŋ] velar, rang. In the section on places, the dotted line on the pictures of bilabial, alveolar, and velar articulations illustrate the three nasals.

Laterals are sounds where the air escapes around the sides of the tongue. There is only one lateral in English, [l], a voiced alveolar lateral. It occurs in two versions, the so called "clear l" before vowels, light, long, and the "dark l" in other cases, milk, ball. Words like little, lateral have one of each type. "Dark l" may be written with the symbol [1]. "Clear l" is pronounced with the top of the tongue raised, whereas for "dark l " it is the back of the tongue which is raised. Here again, as with aspirated and unaspirated voiceless plosives, even though "clear l" and "dark l" are phonetically different, they cannot be said to be different sounds from the point of view of how they function in the sound system. If you produce a "dark l" where usually you have a "clear l", for example at the beginning of the word long, your pronunciation will sound odd but nobody will understand a different word.

Approximants are sounds where the tongue only approaches the roof of the mouth, so that there is not enough obstruction to create any friction. English has three approximants, which are all voiced. [r] is alveolar, right, brown, sometimes called post-alveolar, because it is slightly further back that the other alveolar sounds [t,d,s,l]. [j] is a palatal approximant, use, youth, and [w] is a velar approximant, why, twin, square. [w] always has lip-rounding as well, and therefore it is sometimes called labio-velar.

[r] only occurs before vowels in southern British English, whereas other accents, e.g. Scottish, Irish, and most American ones, also can have it after vowels. Therefore those accents can make a distinction between e.g. saw and sore, which are pronounced exactly alike in southern British English.

6.      Phonemes and allophones

Phoname

-          A phoname is a single “unit” of sound that has meaning in language.

-          slashes enclose phonemes: e.g  /t/

-          Recognized by speakers as separate sounds

-          Differentiate between words (kill/dill/will), so they appear in overlapping distributionwith each other (all at the same place in a word)

-          Phonemes are the separate sounds of a language

Allophone

-          An allophone is phonetic variant of  a phoneme in particular language.

-          square brackets enclose allophones: e.g [t]

-          Speakers hear them as the same sound

-          Allophones are different versions of the same phoneme, so they never appear in the same place in a word: thun, but not sthun. “sthun” and “stun” aren’t different words.

-          That means allophones of a single phoneme appear in complementary distribution.

Example : Try saying these two words: car and keys

-          Phonetically: [kʰα: cʰi:z]

-          [kʰ] and [cʰ] are allophonesof

-          the / k / is phoneme.

Allophonic rule :

-          /t/ → [tʰ] word-initally and in front of stressed syllables

e.g : table, treat, attend, until, attack

-          /t/ → [ɾ] intervocalically, when second vowel is unstressed

e.g : better, Betty, butter, cutie, buttocks

-          /t/ → [tʹ] word-finally

e.g : set, right, pit

-          /t/ → [t] elsewhere

e.g : stop, street, Batic

7.          Minimal Pairs

Minimal pairs is part of pair words that differ in a single phoname. Some examples are :

Vowel Sounds

• Minimal Pairs /ɪ/ and /i:/          (sit and seat)
• Minimal Pairs /e/ and /ɪ/          (desk and disk)
• Minimal Pairs /e/ and /eɪ/         (wet and wait)
• Minimal Pairs /æ/ and /ʌ/        (bat and but)
• Minimal Pairs /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/      (so and saw)

Consonant Sounds

• Minimal Pairs /b/ and /v/         (berry and very)
• Minimal Pairs /b/ and /p/         (buy and pie)
• Minimal Pairs /n/ and /ŋ/         (thin and thing)
• Minimal Pairs /l/ and /r/           (alive and arrive)
• Minimal Pairs /ʧ/ and /t/          (catch and cat)
• Minimal Pairs /s/ and /ʃ/          (sea and she)
• Minimal Pairs /f/ and /v/          (fan and van)

Initial Consonant Sounds

• Minimal Pairs initial /f/ and /p/            (fast and past)
• Minimal Pairs initial /k/ and /g/           (came and game)
• Minimal Pairs initial /t/ and /d/            (two and do)

Final Consonant Sounds

• Minimal Pairs final /k/ and /g/             (back and bag)
• Minimal Pairs final /m/ and /n/            (am and an)
• Minimal Pairs final /t/ and /d/             (hat and had)

CHAPTER III

WORD : MORPHOLOGY AND LEXICOLOGY

A.    Definition of Word

A word is the smallest chunk of meaningful language, a unit made up only of indiviually meaningless sounds (in spoken) or latters (in written).

B.     Definition of Morphology

Morphology is the study of word structure and word formation. Words, though impossible to define in absolute terms, can be thought of as the units that are combined to form sentences in a language such as English. Just as sentences can be broken down into smaller units (words), we can break words down into smaller meaningful parts. The smallest meaningful part of a word is called a morpheme.

Note: not all words have more than one morpheme. Words that have only one morpheme are also called monomorphemic words (e.g. pig). Words with more than one morpheme are called polymorphemic words (as in foolishness [fool + ish + ness]).

Ø  Types of Morphemes

·         Free morpheme: is a morpheme that can stand alone as words by themselves (e.g. Tree).

·         Bound morpheme: is a morpheme that cannot stand by itself to form a word; it must be joined to other morpheme. It is bound because although it has meaning, it cannot stand alone. It must be attached to another morpheme to produces a word (e.g. Trees).

We can further divide bound morpheme into three categories. The general term for all three is Affix, there are:

1)      Prefix: is part of a word that is attached to the beginning of a base word to change the meaning.

Prefixes	Meaning	Example
De-	Away from, off	descend, decompose
Dis-	apart, away, not	disengage, disarray
Ex-	From, out	ex-prime minister
In/Im-	Not, in, into	inadequate, improper
Inter-	Between	interpreter
Mis-	wrong, ill, wrongly used	mistook, misunderstood
Multi-		multimillionaire, multi-storeyed
Non-	not (generally less emphatic than “in-“ or “un-“)	non-profit, non-believer
Post-	After
Pre-	before, beforehand, in advance	prefix, pre-dawn
Re-	back, again	reapply, redesign
Sub-	under, below, beneath, lower	subdivide, submarine
Trans-	across, over, beyond, through	translate, transport
Un-	Not	unco-operative, unprovoked

2)      Infix: is a part of a word that is attached in the middle of a word. Although this is principle is rare in English, unless such change as “comeàcame” or “footàfeet” or  “manàmen”, are considered to be types of infix.

3)      Suffix: is a part of a word that is attached to the end of a base word be to change the meaning.

Suffixes	Meaning	Example
-able/ible	Capable, able to, can do	responsible, reliable
-age	Forming a noun	marriage, garage
-al	Aspect of, pertaining to, abstract noun	Functional, arrival
-ance	an act of, a state of, the result of	Governance, defiance
-ate	making or applying, pertaining to	terminate, congratulate
-cy	Expressing the quality of an adjective	Diplomacy, literaty
-dom	State or condition of	Freedom, kingdom
-ence	An act of, the result of	Deference, independence
-er	One who	Teacher, worker
-ess	Female	Goddess, actress
-ful	full of, having some or much	beautiful, wonderful
-hood	State/condition of, a group sharing characteristics	neighbourhood, parenthood
-ic	A thing, pertaining to	realistic, optimistic
-ish	Adjective from noun, similar, sort of, approximately, or nationality, alnguage	childish, selfish, Spanish, English
-ism	act of doing manner of action or conduct, state, condition, or fact of being, characteristic of	realism, optimism
-ist	Agnetive, person	realist, violinist
-ity	the state of being	reality, sensitivity
-less	Without	homeless, hopeless
-let	Diminutive, or denoting a relation to some part of the body	Ringlet, hamlet, anklet
-ly	in a certain way	briefly
-ment	the result of being	payment, commitment
-ness	the state of being, denoting state, condition, quality or degree	happiness, kindness
-ship	noun marker denoting state, condition	friendship, kinship
-sion/ssion/tion	the act of or the state of being	decision, permission, generation

Bound morpheme operates in the connection processes by means of:

1)      Derivational

Derivational is the process of creating a new word out of one or more old word, either by adding a prefix or suffix or by compounding. Derivational that takes place without the addition of bound morpheme (such as the use of noun impact as a verb) is called zero derivational or convertion.

Types of Derivational

a)      Derivational prefixes: is do not normally alter the word class of the base word; thar is, a prefix is added to a noun to form a new noun with a different meaning.

Example:     patient – outpatient

                    group – subgroup

                    trial – retrial

b)      Derivational suffixes: when a derivational suuffix is added to the end of word, it changes the meaning of the word, and is usually a different part of speech. But the new meaning is related to the old meaning, it is “derived” from the old meaning.

·         In some cases, more than one derivational suffix can be added to a word.

Example:     derive (verb) + tion = derivation (noun)

                                derivation (noun) + al = derivational (adjective)

·         Noun is normally made by adding suffix:

Suffixes	Original word	Suffixed word (n)
-ation	nominate	nomination
-al	nature	natural
-ary, -ery, -ory	diction, brave, dorm	dictionary, bravery, dormitory
-ian	music	musician
-er	teach	teacher
-ess	god	goddess
-ism	hero	heroism
-ist	art	artist
-ity	captive	captivity
-ment	content	contentment
-ness	Sad	sadness
-sion	Divide	devision
-y	Cheer	cheery

·         An adjective can be made by adding suffix:

Suffix	Original word	Suffixed word (adj)
-able	tax (n)	taxable
-al	accident (n)	accidental
-ary	imagine (v)	imaginary
-ful	sorrow (n)	sorrowful
-fy	simple (n)	simplify
-ly	brother (n)	brotherly
-y	ease (v)	easy

·         An adverb is normally made by adding suffix “-ly” to the adjective

Example:     helpful (adj) + ly = helpfully (adv)

                    slow (adj) + ly = slowly (adv)

·         A verb can be made adding suffixes:

Suffixes	Original word	Suffixed word (v)
-ify	Simple (n)	simplify
-ate	Liquid (n)	liquidate
-ize	Terror (n)	terrorize

2)      Inflectional

Inflectional is a process of word formation in which items are added to the base form of word to express grammatical meanings. In English there are nine inflectional morpheme.

Word Class	Bound Morphemes	Function	Example	Grammatical Category
Verb	-s	marker for 3rd person, simple present, singular	write-write-s	person, tense, number, mood
	-ing	marker for progressive/ continuous form	play-play-ing	aspect
	-ed	marker for simple past	walk-walk-ed	tense
	-ed and -en	marker for past participle	wash-wash-ed take-tak-en	tense, voice
Noun	-s	marker plural	flat-flat-s	number
	-s	marker for possession	john’s flat	case
Adjective	-er	comparative marker	clean-er
	-est	superlative marker	clean-est
Numeral	-th	ordinal number	fif-th

C.     Definition of Lexicology

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words elements relations between words (semantic relation), word groups and the whole lexicon.

1)      Object of lexicology

v  Investigates the problems of word-structure and word-formation in Modern English

v  The semantic structure of English words

v  Principles of the classification of vocabulary units into various groupings

v  The laws governing the replenishment of the vocabulary

v  Studies the relations between various lexical layers of the English vocabulary

v  The specific laws and regulations that govern development of the vocabulary

v  The source and growth of the vocabulary and changes it has undergone

2)      Links of lexicology with other aspect of linguistic

·         phonetics

·         grammar

·         stylistics

·         history of the language

·         social linguistics

·         typology

3)      Types of lexicology

·         General Lexicology: general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language

·         Special Lexicology: description of the characteristics peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language

·         Historical Lexicology: origin of various words, their change and development, linguistic and extra-linguistic factors influencing the structure of words, their meaning and usage

·         Descriptive Lexicology: vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development

·         Comparative and Contrastive Lexicology: correlation between the languages , correspondences between the vocabulary units of different languages.

CHAPTER IV

MEANING (SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS)

I.     SEMANTICS

Semantics is the study of meaning in language.

According  to the traditional role semantics are divided into two groups.

1.      Sense   

Sense of word is the additional meaning attached to the word.

2.      Reference

Reference is speaker indicate with things (including person) are being talked about.

e.g The First person who walked the moon.

(the person refers to Neil Amstrong)

Note: Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference.

The Scope of Semantics

Proposition, Sentence & Utterance 

1.      Proposition

Proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs.

Declarative sentence ( Sentence that make statement and give information )

e.g

a. Dr Findlaykilled Janet

b. Dr Findlaycaused Janet todie

These two sentence are have same mind/proposition

2.      Sentence

Sentence is neither a physical event nor a physical object. It is, conceived (partial) abstractly, a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of a language. A sentence can be thought of as the ideal string of words behind various realizations in utterances and inscriptions.

A sentenceis a grammatically completestring of words expressing a (partial) complete thought.

e.g She walks to school.

3.      Utterance

Utterance is anystretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person. An utterance is the use by a particular speaker, on a particular occasion, of a piece of language, such as a sequence of sentences, or a single phrase, or even a single word.

e.g

a. ‘Hello’

b. ‘Not much’

Relationships of Utterances, Sentences, and Proposition:

è A proposition is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describes some state of affairs. 

è In uttering a declarative sentence a speaker typically asserts a proposition. The notion of truth can be used to decide whether two sentences express different propositions.

è In a condition where sentence is true while the other is false, they express different propositions.

è True propositions correspond to facts, in the ordinary sense of the word fact. False propositions do not correspond to facts.

Family Tree Relationship between

Utterances, Sentences, and Propositions:

Family Three Relationship between Utterances, Sentences, and Propositions:

Based on the tree diagram above, we can conclude that a single proposition could be expressed by using several different sentences and each of these sentences could be uttered an infinite number of times.

II.    PRAGMATICS

Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreter by a listener (or reader).

-          Pragmaticsisthestudy of contextualmeaning.

-          Pragmaticsisthestudyhowmore getas communicatdthanis Said.

-          Pragmaticsisthestudy of theexpression of relatif distance.

Simpel form to understand is Pragmatics refers to meaning construction in specific interactional context, according to the foundation part speech act theory.

Speech act are defined as what action, we perform when we produce utterances.

PERFORMATIVE SPEECH ACT

1.      Locutionary act

The basic act of utterence, or producing an utterence, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression.

2.      Illocutionary act

The force of what has been said, defined by social convention in the context which it is utterence.

3.      Perlocutionary act

The actual effect of the utterance.

For example :

è Locution         : Tomorrow is holiday. (direct speech act)

è Illocution        : An act of reminding not to school, the campus, or the office or an act of inviting to go out, depending on the context. (indirect speech act)

è Perlocution     : the hearer will not go to school, the campus or the office or agree to go out. (indirect speech act)

Speech acts can be further categorized as :

¨  A direct speech acts.

            Where the meaning of utterance is literal.

            For example: “Can you help me to bring this box?”

            (uttered by speaker to someone. Where the speaker ask help to bring his/her box)

¨  Indirect speech acts
Where the meaning of utterance depends upon context and the hearer ability to interpret to implicature contained within the utterance.
For example:“It is sound great to drink soda in the cafetaria.”
(the speaker aims someone but the aim doesnt said directly.
Where the speaker want to persuade someone to go to the cafetaria to drink indirectly)

The blending between pragmatic and semantic

The blending between pragmatics and semantics is known as deixis (Greek).

 In English language a specific set of word known as deictic expression which will vary in meaning depending upon who using them, where and when they arebeing uttered.  Deictic expression always takes their meaning from some aspect of the context in which they are uttered. Social deixisis another category which is some times used. This includes categories known as address terms where social status is in dexicalised through thelinguistic terms that we use.

For example: ‘Madam’, ‘Sir’, ‘Professor’, ‘Doctor’, or through the more informal terms of endearment such as ‘mate’, ‘love’.